ZFS(4)

NAME
zfs - tuning of the ZFS kernel module

DESCRIPTION
The ZFS module supports these parameters:

dbuf_cache_max_bytes=UINT64_MAXB (u64)
    Maximum size in bytes of the dbuf cache. The target size is determined by the MIN versus 1/2^dbuf_cache_shift (1/32nd) of the target ARC size. The behavior of the dbuf cache and its associated settings can be observed via the /proc/spl/kstat/zfs/dbufstats kstat.

dbuf_metadata_cache_max_bytes=UINT64_MAXB (u64)
    Maximum size in bytes of the metadata dbuf cache. The target size is determined by the MIN versus 1/2^dbuf_metadata_cache_shift (1/64th) of the target ARC size. The behavior of the metadata dbuf cache and its associated settings can be observed via the /proc/spl/kstat/zfs/dbufstats kstat.

dbuf_cache_hiwater_pct=10% (uint)
    The percentage over dbuf_cache_max_bytes when dbufs must be evicted directly.

dbuf_cache_lowater_pct=10% (uint)
    The percentage below dbuf_cache_max_bytes when the evict thread stops evicting dbufs.

dbuf_cache_shift=5 (uint)
    Set the size of the dbuf cache (dbuf_cache_max_bytes) to a log2 fraction of the target ARC size.

dbuf_metadata_cache_shift=6 (uint)
    Set the size of the dbuf metadata cache (dbuf_metadata_cache_max_bytes) to a log2 fraction of the target ARC size.

dbuf_mutex_cache_shift=0 (uint)
    Set the size of the mutex array for the dbuf cache. When set to 0 the array is dynamically sized based on total system memory.

dmu_object_alloc_chunk_shift=7 (128) (uint)
    dnode slots allocated in a single operation as a power of 2. The default value minimizes lock contention for the bulk operation performed.

dmu_ddt_copies=3 (uint)
    Controls the number of copies stored for DeDup Table (DDT) objects. Reducing the number of copies to 1 from the previous default of 3 can reduce the write inflation caused by deduplication. This assumes redundancy for this data is provided by the vdev layer. If the DDT is damaged, space may be leaked (not freed) when the DDT can not report the correct reference count.

dmu_prefetch_max=134217728B (128 MiB) (uint)
    Limit the amount we can prefetch with one call to this amount in bytes. This helps to limit the amount of memory that can be used by prefetching.

l2arc_feed_again=1|0 (int)
    Turbo L2ARC warm-up. When the L2ARC is cold the fill interval will be set as fast as possible.

l2arc_feed_min_ms=200 (u64)
    Min feed interval in milliseconds. Requires l2arc_feed_again=1 and only applicable in related situations.

l2arc_feed_secs=1 (u64)
    Seconds between L2ARC writing.

l2arc_headroom=8 (u64)
    How far through the ARC lists to search for L2ARC cacheable content, expressed as a multiplier of l2arc_write_max. ARC persistence across reboots can be achieved with persistent L2ARC by setting this parameter to 0, allowing the full length of ARC lists to be searched for cacheable content.

l2arc_headroom_boost=200% (u64)
    Scales l2arc_headroom by this percentage when L2ARC contents are being successfully compressed before writing. A value of 100 disables this feature.

l2arc_exclude_special=0|1 (int)
    Controls whether buffers present on special vdevs are eligible for caching into L2ARC. If set to 1, exclude dbufs on special vdevs from being cached to L2ARC.

l2arc_mfuonly=0|1|2 (int)
    Controls whether only MFU metadata and data are cached from ARC into L2ARC. This may be desired to avoid wasting space on L2ARC when reading/writing large amounts of data that are not expected to be accessed more than once.

    The default is 0, meaning both MRU and MFU data and metadata are cached. When turning off this feature (setting it to 0), some MRU buffers will still be present in ARC and eventually cached on L2ARC. If l2arc_noprefetch=0, some prefetched buffers will be cached to L2ARC, and those might later transition to MRU, in which case the l2arc_mru_asize arcstat will not be 0.

    Setting it to 1 means to L2 cache only MFU data and metadata.

    Setting it to 2 means to L2 cache all metadata (MRU+MFU) but only MFU data (i.e. MRU data are not cached). This can be the right setting to cache as much metadata as possible even when having high data turnover.

    Regardless of l2arc_noprefetch, some MFU buffers might be evicted from ARC, accessed later on as prefetches and transition to MRU as prefetches. If accessed again they are counted as MRU and the l2arc_mru_asize arcstat will not be 0.

    The ARC status of L2ARC buffers when they were first cached in L2ARC can be seen in the l2arc_mru_asize, l2arc_mfu_asize, and l2arc_prefetch_asize arcstats when importing the pool or onlining a cache device if persistent L2ARC is enabled.

    The evict_l2_eligible_mru arcstat does not take into account if this option is enabled as the information provided by the evict_l2_eligible_m[rf]u arcstats can be used to decide if toggling this option is appropriate for the current workload.

l2arc_meta_percent=33% (uint)
    Percent of ARC size allowed for L2ARC-only headers. Since L2ARC buffers are not evicted on memory pressure, too many headers on a system with an irrationally large L2ARC can render it slow or unusable. This parameter limits L2ARC writes and rebuilds to achieve the target.

l2arc_trim_ahead=0% (u64)
    Trims ahead of the current write size (l2arc_write_max) on L2ARC devices by this percentage of write size if we have filled the device. If set to 100 we TRIM twice the space required to accommodate upcoming writes. A minimum of 64 MiB will be trimmed. It also enables TRIM of the whole L2ARC device upon creation or addition to an existing pool or if the header of the device is invalid upon importing a pool or onlining a cache device. A value of 0 disables TRIM on L2ARC altogether and is the default as it can put significant stress on the underlying storage devices. This will vary depending of how well the specific device handles these commands.

l2arc_noprefetch=1|0 (int)
    Do not write buffers to L2ARC if they were prefetched but not used by applications. In case there are prefetched buffers in L2ARC and this option is later set, we do not read the prefetched buffers from L2ARC. Unsetting this option is useful for caching sequential reads from the disks to L2ARC and serve those reads from L2ARC later on. This may be beneficial in case the L2ARC device is significantly faster in sequential reads than the disks of the pool.

    Use 1 to disable and 0 to enable caching/reading prefetches to/from L2ARC.

l2arc_norw=0|1 (int)
    No reads during writes.

l2arc_write_boost=33554432B (32 MiB) (u64)
    Cold L2ARC devices will have l2arc_write_max increased by this amount while they remain cold.

l2arc_write_max=33554432B (32 MiB) (u64)
    Max write bytes per interval.

l2arc_rebuild_enabled=1|0 (int)
    Rebuild the L2ARC when importing a pool (persistent L2ARC). This can be disabled if there are problems importing a pool or attaching an L2ARC device (e.g. the L2ARC device is slow in reading stored log metadata, or the metadata has become somehow fragmented/unusable).

l2arc_rebuild_blocks_min_l2size=1073741824B (1 GiB) (u64)
    Minimum size of an L2ARC device required in order to write log blocks in it. The log blocks are used upon importing the pool to rebuild the persistent L2ARC.

    For L2ARC devices less than 1 GiB, the amount of data l2arc_evict() evicts is significant compared to the amount of restored L2ARC data. In this case, do not write log blocks in L2ARC in order not to waste space.

metaslab_aliquot=2097152B (2 MiB) (u64)
    Metaslab group's per child vdev allocation granularity, in bytes. This is roughly similar to what would be referred to as the "stripe size" in traditional RAID arrays. In normal operation, ZFS will try to write this amount of data to each child of a top-level vdev before moving on to the next top-level vdev.

metaslab_bias_enabled=1|0 (int)
    Enable metaslab groups biasing based on their over- or under-utilization relative to the metaslab class average. If disabled, each metaslab group will receive allocations proportional to its capacity.

metaslab_perf_bias=1|0|2 (int)
    Controls metaslab groups biasing based on their write performance. Setting to 0 makes all metaslab groups receive fixed amounts of allocations. Setting to 2 allows faster metaslab groups to allocate more. Setting to 1 equals to 2 if the pool is write-bound or 0 otherwise. That is, if the pool is limited by write throughput, then allocate more from faster metaslab groups, but if not, try to evenly distribute the allocations.

metaslab_force_ganging=16777217B (16 MiB + 1 B) (u64)
    Make some blocks above a certain size be gang blocks. This option is used by the test suite to facilitate testing.

metaslab_force_ganging_pct=3% (uint)
    For blocks that could be forced to be a gang block (due to metaslab_force_ganging), force this many of them to be gang blocks.

brt_zap_prefetch=1|0 (int)
    Controls prefetching BRT records for blocks which are going to be cloned.

brt_zap_default_bs=13 (8 KiB) (int)
    Default BRT ZAP data block size as a power of 2. Note that changing this after creating a BRT on the pool will not affect existing BRTs, only newly created ones.

brt_zap_default_ibs=13 (8 KiB) (int)
    Default BRT ZAP indirect block size as a power of 2. Note that changing this after creating a BRT on the pool will not affect existing BRTs, only newly created ones.

ddt_zap_default_bs=15 (32 KiB) (int)
    Default DDT ZAP data block size as a power of 2. Note that changing this after creating a DDT on the pool will not affect existing DDTs, only newly created ones.

ddt_zap_default_ibs=15 (32 KiB) (int)
    Default DDT ZAP indirect block size as a power of 2. Note that changing this after creating a DDT on the pool will not affect existing DDTs, only newly created ones.

zfs_default_bs=9 (512 B) (int)
    Default dnode block size as a power of 2.

zfs_default_ibs=17 (128 KiB) (int)
    Default dnode indirect block size as a power of 2.

zfs_dio_enabled=1|0 (int)
    Enable Direct I/O. If this setting is 0, then all I/O requests will be directed through the ARC acting as though the dataset property direct was set to disabled.

zfs_dio_strict=0|1 (int)
    Strictly enforce alignment for Direct I/O requests, returning EINVAL if not page-aligned instead of silently falling back to uncached I/O.

zfs_history_output_max=1048576B (1 MiB) (u64)
    When attempting to log an output nvlist of an ioctl in the on-disk history, the output will not be stored if it is larger than this size (in bytes). This must be less than DMU_MAX_ACCESS (64 MiB). This applies primarily to zfs_ioc_channel_program() (cf. zfs-program(8)).

zfs_keep_log_spacemaps_at_export=0|1 (int)
    Prevent log spacemaps from being destroyed during pool exports and destroys.

zfs_metaslab_segment_weight_enabled=1|0 (int)
    Enable/disable segment-based metaslab selection.

zfs_metaslab_switch_threshold=2 (int)
    When using segment-based metaslab selection, continue allocating from the active metaslab until this option's worth of buckets have been exhausted.

metaslab_debug_load=0|1 (int)
    Load all metaslabs during pool import.

metaslab_debug_unload=0|1 (int)
    Prevent metaslabs from being unloaded.

metaslab_fragmentation_factor_enabled=1|0 (int)
    Enable use of the fragmentation metric in computing metaslab weights.

metaslab_df_max_search=16777216B (16 MiB) (uint)
    Maximum distance to search forward from the last offset. Without this limit, fragmented pools can see >100`000 iterations and metaslab_block_picker() becomes the performance limiting factor on high-performance storage.

    With the default setting of 16 MiB, we typically see less than 500 iterations, even with very fragmented ashift=9 pools. The maximum number of iterations possible is metaslab_df_max_search / 2^(ashift+1). With the default setting of 16 MiB this is 16*1024 (with ashift=9) or 2*1024 (with ashift=12).

metaslab_df_use_largest_segment=0|1 (int)
    If not searching forward (due to metaslab_df_max_search, metaslab_df_free_pct, or metaslab_df_alloc_threshold), this tunable controls which segment is used. If set, we will use the largest free segment. If unset, we will use a segment of at least the requested size.

zfs_metaslab_max_size_cache_sec=3600s (1 hour) (u64)
    When we unload a metaslab, we cache the size of the largest free chunk. We use that cached size to determine whether or not to load a metaslab for a given allocation. As more frees accumulate in that metaslab while it's unloaded, the cached max size becomes less and less accurate. After a number of seconds controlled by this tunable, we stop considering the cached max size and start considering only the histogram instead.

zfs_metaslab_mem_limit=25% (uint)
    When we are loading a new metaslab, we check the amount of memory being used to store metaslab range trees. If it is over a threshold, we attempt to unload the least recently used metaslab to prevent the system from clogging all of its memory with range trees. This tunable sets the percentage of total system memory that is the threshold.

zfs_metaslab_try_hard_before_gang=0|1 (int)
    If unset, we will first try normal allocation.
    If that fails then we will do a gang allocation.
    If that fails then we will do a "try hard" gang allocation.
    If that fails then we will have a multi-layer gang block.

    If set, we will first try normal allocation.
    If that fails then we will do a "try hard" allocation.
    If that fails we will do a gang allocation.
    If that fails we will do a "try hard" gang allocation.
    If that fails then we will have a multi-layer gang block.

zfs_metaslab_find_max_tries=100 (uint)
    When not trying hard, we only consider this number of the best metaslabs. This improves performance, especially when there are many metaslabs per vdev and the allocation can't actually be satisfied (so we would otherwise iterate all metaslabs).

zfs_vdev_default_ms_count=200 (uint)
    When a vdev is added, target this number of metaslabs per top-level vdev.

zfs_vdev_default_ms_shift=29 (512 MiB) (uint)
    Default lower limit for metaslab size.

zfs_vdev_max_ms_shift=34 (16 GiB) (uint)
    Default upper limit for metaslab size.

zfs_vdev_max_auto_ashift=14 (uint)
    Maximum ashift used when optimizing for logical → physical sector size on new top-level vdevs. May be increased up to ASHIFT_MAX (16), but this may negatively impact pool space efficiency.

zfs_vdev_direct_write_verify=Linux 1 | FreeBSD 0 (uint)
    If non-zero, then a Direct I/O write's checksum will be verified every time the write is issued and before it is committed to the block pointer. In the event the checksum is not valid then the I/O operation will return EIO. This module parameter can be used to detect if the contents of the users buffer have changed in the process of doing a Direct I/O write. It can also help to identify if reported checksum errors are tied to Direct I/O writes. Each verify error causes a dio_verify_wr zevent. Direct Write I/O checksum verify errors can be seen with zpool status -d. The default value for this is 1 on Linux, but is 0 for FreeBSD because user pages can be placed under write protection in FreeBSD before the Direct I/O write is issued.

zfs_vdev_min_auto_ashift=ASHIFT_MIN (9) (uint)
    Minimum ashift used when creating new top-level vdevs.

zfs_vdev_min_ms_count=16 (uint)
    Minimum number of metaslabs to create in a top-level vdev.

vdev_validate_skip=0|1 (int)
    Skip label validation steps during pool import. Changing is not recommended unless you know what you're doing and are recovering a damaged label.

zfs_vdev_ms_count_limit=131072 (128k) (uint)
    Practical upper limit of total metaslabs per top-level vdev.

metaslab_preload_enabled=1|0 (int)
    Enable metaslab group preloading.

metaslab_preload_limit=10 (uint)
    Maximum number of metaslabs per group to preload

metaslab_preload_pct=50 (uint)
    Percentage of CPUs to run a metaslab preload taskq

metaslab_lba_weighting_enabled=1|0 (int)
    Give more weight to metaslabs with lower LBAs, assuming they have greater bandwidth, as is typically the case on a modern constant angular velocity disk drive.

metaslab_unload_delay=32 (uint)
    After a metaslab is used, we keep it loaded for this many TXGs, to attempt to reduce unnecessary reloading. Note that both this many TXGs and metaslab_unload_delay_ms milliseconds must pass before unloading will occur.

metaslab_unload_delay_ms=600000ms (10 min) (uint)
    After a metaslab is used, we keep it loaded for this many milliseconds, to attempt to reduce unnecessary reloading. Note, that both this many milliseconds and metaslab_unload_delay TXGs must pass before unloading will occur.

reference_history=3 (uint)
    Maximum reference holders being tracked when reference_tracking_enable is active.

raidz_expand_max_copy_bytes=160MB (ulong)
    Max amount of memory to use for RAID-Z expansion I/O. This limits how much I/O can be outstanding at once.

raidz_expand_max_reflow_bytes=0 (ulong)
    For testing, pause RAID-Z expansion when reflow amount reaches this value.

raidz_io_aggregate_rows=4 (ulong)
    For expanded RAID-Z, aggregate reads that have more rows than this.

reference_history=3 (int)
    Maximum reference holders being tracked when reference_tracking_enable is active.

reference_tracking_enable=0|1 (int)
    Track reference holders to refcount_t objects (debug builds only).

send_holes_without_birth_time=1|0 (int)
    When set, the hole_birth optimization will not be used, and all holes will always be sent during a zfs send. This is useful if you suspect your datasets are affected by a bug in hole_birth.

spa_config_path=/etc/zfs/zpool.cache (charp)
    SPA config file.

spa_asize_inflation=24 (uint)
    Multiplication factor used to estimate actual disk consumption from the size of data being written. The default value is a worst case estimate, but lower values may be valid for a given pool depending on its configuration. Pool administrators who understand the factors involved may wish to specify a more realistic inflation factor, particularly if they operate close to quota or capacity limits.

spa_load_print_vdev_tree=0|1 (int)
    Whether to print the vdev tree in the debugging message buffer during pool import.

spa_load_verify_data=1|0 (int)
    Whether to traverse data blocks during an "extreme rewind" (-X) import.

    An extreme rewind import normally performs a full traversal of all blocks in the pool for verification. If this parameter is unset, the traversal skips non-metadata blocks. It can be toggled once the import has started to stop or start the traversal of non-metadata blocks.

spa_load_verify_metadata=1|0 (int)
    Whether to traverse blocks during an "extreme rewind" (-X) pool import.

    An extreme rewind import normally performs a full traversal of all blocks in the pool for verification. If this parameter is unset, the traversal is not performed. It can be toggled once the import has started to stop or start the traversal.

spa_load_verify_shift=4 (1/16th) (uint)
    Sets the maximum number of bytes to consume during pool import to the log2 fraction of the target ARC size.

spa_slop_shift=5 (1/32nd) (int)
    Normally, we don't allow the last 3.2% (1/2^spa_slop_shift) of space in the pool to be consumed. This ensures that we don't run the pool completely out of space, due to unaccounted changes (e.g. to the MOS). It also limits the worst-case time to allocate space. If we have less than this amount of free space, most ZPL operations (e.g. write, create) will return ENOSPC.

spa_num_allocators=4 (int)
    Determines the number of block allocators to use per spa instance. Capped by the number of actual CPUs in the system via spa_cpus_per_allocator.

    Note that setting this value too high could result in performance degradation and/or excess fragmentation. Set value only applies to pools imported/created after that.

spa_cpus_per_allocator=4 (int)
    Determines the minimum number of CPUs in a system for block allocator per spa instance. Set value only applies to pools imported/created after that.

spa_upgrade_errlog_limit=0 (uint)
    Limits the number of on-disk error log entries that will be converted to the new format when enabling the head_errlog feature. The default is to convert all log entries.

vdev_read_sit_out_secs=600s (10 min) (ulong)
    When a slow disk outlier is detected it is placed in a sit out state. While sitting out the disk will not participate in normal reads, instead its data will be reconstructed as needed from parity. Scrub operations will always read from a disk, even if it's sitting out. A number of disks in a RAID-Z or dRAID vdev may sit out at the same time, up to the number of parity devices. Writes will still be issued to a disk which is sitting out to maintain full redundancy. Defaults to 600 seconds and a value of zero disables disk sit-outs in general, including slow disk outlier detection.

vdev_raidz_outlier_check_interval_ms=1000ms (1 sec) (ulong)
    How often each RAID-Z and dRAID vdev will check for slow disk outliers. Increasing this interval will reduce the sensitivity of detection (since all I/Os since the last check are included in the statistics), but will slow the response to a disk developing a problem. Defaults to once per second; setting extremely small values may cause negative performance effects.

vdev_raidz_outlier_insensitivity=50 (uint)
    When performing slow outlier checks for RAID-Z and dRAID vdevs, this value is used to determine how far out an outlier must be before it counts as an event worth consdering. This is phrased as "insensitivity" because larger values result in fewer detections. Smaller values will result in more aggressive sitting out of disks that may have problems, but may significantly increase the rate of spurious sit-outs.

    To provide a more technical definition of this parameter, this is the multiple of the inter-quartile range (IQR) that is being used in a Tukey's Fence detection algorithm. This is much higher than a normal Tukey's Fence k-value, because the distribution under consideration is probably an extreme-value distribution, rather than a more typical Gaussian distribution.

vdev_removal_max_span=32768B (32 KiB) (uint)
    During top-level vdev removal, chunks of data are copied from the vdev which may include free space in order to trade bandwidth for IOPS. This parameter determines the maximum span of free space, in bytes, which will be included as "unnecessary" data in a chunk of copied data.

    The default value here was chosen to align with zfs_vdev_read_gap_limit, which is a similar concept when doing regular reads (but there's no reason it has to be the same).

vdev_file_logical_ashift=9 (512 B) (u64)
    Logical ashift for file-based devices.

vdev_file_physical_ashift=9 (512 B) (u64)
    Physical ashift for file-based devices.

zap_iterate_prefetch=1|0 (int)
    If set, when we start iterating over a ZAP object, prefetch the entire object (all leaf blocks). However, this is limited by dmu_prefetch_max.

zap_micro_max_size=131072B (128 KiB) (int)
    Maximum micro ZAP size. A "micro" ZAP is upgraded to a "fat" ZAP once it grows beyond the specified size. Sizes higher than 128KiB will be clamped to 128KiB unless the large_microzap feature is enabled.

zap_shrink_enabled=1|0 (int)
    If set, adjacent empty ZAP blocks will be collapsed, reducing disk space.

zfetch_min_distance=4194304B (4 MiB) (uint)
    Min bytes to prefetch per stream. Prefetch distance starts from the demand access size and quickly grows to this value, doubling on each hit. After that it may grow further by 1/8 per hit, but only if some prefetch since last time haven't completed in time to satisfy demand request, i.e. prefetch depth didn't cover the read latency or the pool got saturated.

zfetch_max_distance=67108864B (64 MiB) (uint)
    Max bytes to prefetch per stream.

zfetch_max_idistance=67108864B (64 MiB) (uint)
    Max bytes to prefetch indirects for per stream.

zfetch_max_reorder=16777216B (16 MiB) (uint)
    Requests within this byte distance from the current prefetch stream position are considered parts of the stream, reordered due to parallel processing. Such requests do not advance the stream position immediately unless zfetch_hole_shift fill threshold is reached, but saved to fill holes in the stream later.

zfetch_max_streams=8 (uint)
    Max number of streams per zfetch (prefetch streams per file).

zfetch_min_sec_reap=1 (uint)
    Min time before inactive prefetch stream can be reclaimed

zfetch_max_sec_reap=2 (uint)
    Max time before inactive prefetch stream can be deleted

zfs_abd_scatter_enabled=1|0 (int)
    Enables ARC from using scatter/gather lists and forces all allocations to be linear in kernel memory. Disabling can improve performance in some code paths at the expense of fragmented kernel memory.

zfs_abd_scatter_max_order=MAX_ORDER-1 (uint)
    Maximum number of consecutive memory pages allocated in a single block for scatter/gather lists.

    The value of MAX_ORDER depends on kernel configuration.

zfs_abd_scatter_min_size=1536B (1.5 KiB) (uint)
    This is the minimum allocation size that will use scatter (page-based) ABDs. Smaller allocations will use linear ABDs.

zfs_arc_dnode_limit=0B (u64)
    When the number of bytes consumed by dnodes in the ARC exceeds this number of bytes, try to unpin some of it in response to demand for non-metadata. This value acts as a ceiling to the amount of dnode metadata, and defaults to 0, which indicates that a percent which is based on zfs_arc_dnode_limit_percent of the ARC meta buffers that may be used for dnodes.

zfs_arc_dnode_limit_percent=10% (u64)
    Percentage that can be consumed by dnodes of ARC meta buffers.

    See also zfs_arc_dnode_limit, which serves a similar purpose but has a higher priority if nonzero.

zfs_arc_dnode_reduce_percent=10% (u64)
    Percentage of ARC dnodes to try to scan in response to demand for non-metadata when the number of bytes consumed by dnodes exceeds zfs_arc_dnode_limit.

zfs_arc_average_blocksize=8192B (8 KiB) (uint)
    The ARC's buffer hash table is sized based on the assumption of an average block size of this value. This works out to roughly 1 MiB of hash table per 1 GiB of physical memory with 8-byte pointers. For configurations with a known larger average block size, this value can be increased to reduce the memory footprint.

zfs_arc_eviction_pct=200% (uint)
    When arc_is_overflowing(), arc_get_data_impl() waits for this percent of the requested amount of data to be evicted. For example, by default, for every 2 KiB that's evicted, 1 KiB of it may be "reused" by a new allocation. Since this is above 100%, it ensures that progress is made towards getting arc_size under arc_c. Since this is finite, it ensures that allocations can still happen, even during the potentially long time that arc_size is more than arc_c.

zfs_arc_evict_batch_limit=10 (uint)
    Number ARC headers to evict per sub-list before proceeding to another sub-list. This batch-style operation prevents entire sub-lists from being evicted at once but comes at a cost of additional unlocking and locking.

zfs_arc_evict_batches_limit=5 (uint)
    Number of zfs_arc_evict_batch_limit batches to process per parallel eviction task under heavy load to reduce number of context switches.

zfs_arc_evict_threads=0 (int)
    Sets the number of ARC eviction threads to be used.

    If set greater than 0, ZFS will dedicate up to that many threads to ARC eviction. Each thread will process one sub-list at a time, until the eviction target is reached or all sub-lists have been processed. When set to 0, ZFS will compute a reasonable number of eviction threads based on the number of CPUs.
     | CPUs | Threads
     | 1-4 | 1
     | 5-8 | 2
     | 9-15 | 3
     | 16-31 | 4
     | 32-63 | 6
     | 64-95 | 8
     | 96-127 | 9
     | 128-160 | 11
     | 160-191 | 12
     | 192-223 | 13
     | 224-255 | 14
     | 256+ | 16

    More threads may improve the responsiveness of ZFS to memory pressure. This can be important for performance when eviction from the ARC becomes a bottleneck for reads and writes.

    This parameter can only be set at module load time.

zfs_arc_grow_retry=0s (uint)
    If set to a non zero value, it will replace the arc_grow_retry value with this value. The arc_grow_retry value (default 5s) is the number of seconds the ARC will wait before trying to resume growth after a memory pressure event.

zfs_arc_lotsfree_percent=10% (int)
    Throttle I/O when free system memory drops below this percentage of total system memory. Setting this value to 0 will disable the throttle.

zfs_arc_max=0B (u64)
    Max size of ARC in bytes. If 0, then the max size of ARC is determined by the amount of system memory installed. The larger of all_system_memory - 1 GiB and 5/8 × all_system_memory will be used as the limit. This value must be at least 67108864B (64 MiB).

    This value can be changed dynamically, with some caveats. It cannot be set back to 0 while running, and reducing it below the current ARC size will not cause the ARC to shrink without memory pressure to induce shrinking.

zfs_arc_meta_balance=500 (uint)
    Balance between metadata and data on ghost hits. Values above 100 increase metadata caching by proportionally reducing effect of ghost data hits on target data/metadata rate.

zfs_arc_min=0B (u64)
    Min size of ARC in bytes. If set to 0, arc_c_min will default to consuming the larger of 32 MiB and all_system_memory / 32.

zfs_arc_min_prefetch_ms=0ms(≡1s) (uint)
    Minimum time prefetched blocks are locked in the ARC.

zfs_arc_min_prescient_prefetch_ms=0ms(≡6s) (uint)
    Minimum time "prescient prefetched" blocks are locked in the ARC. These blocks are meant to be prefetched fairly aggressively ahead of the code that may use them.

zfs_arc_prune_task_threads=1 (int)
    Number of arc_prune threads. FreeBSD does not need more than one. Linux may theoretically use one per mount point up to number of CPUs, but that was not proven to be useful.

zfs_max_missing_tvds=0 (int)
    Number of missing top-level vdevs which will be allowed during pool import (only in read-only mode).

zfs_max_nvlist_src_size= 0 (u64)
    Maximum size in bytes allowed to be passed as zc_nvlist_src_size for ioctls on /dev/zfs. This prevents a user from causing the kernel to allocate an excessive amount of memory. When the limit is exceeded, the ioctl fails with EINVAL and a description of the error is sent to the zfs-dbgmsg log. This parameter should not need to be touched under normal circumstances. If 0, equivalent to a quarter of the user-wired memory limit under FreeBSD and to 134217728B (128 MiB) under Linux.

zfs_multilist_num_sublists=0 (uint)
    To allow more fine-grained locking, each ARC state contains a series of lists for both data and metadata objects. Locking is performed at the level of these "sub-lists". This parameters controls the number of sub-lists per ARC state, and also applies to other uses of the multilist data structure.

    If 0, equivalent to the greater of the number of online CPUs and 4.

zfs_arc_overflow_shift=8 (int)
    The ARC size is considered to be overflowing if it exceeds the current ARC target size (arc_c) by thresholds determined by this parameter. Exceeding by (arc_c >> zfs_arc_overflow_shift) / 2 starts ARC reclamation process. If that appears insufficient, exceeding by (arc_c >> zfs_arc_overflow_shift) × 1.5 blocks new buffer allocation until the reclaim thread catches up. Started reclamation process continues till ARC size returns below the target size.

    The default value of 8 causes the ARC to start reclamation if it exceeds the target size by 0.2% of the target size, and block allocations by 0.6%.

zfs_arc_shrink_shift=0 (uint)
    If nonzero, this will update arc_shrink_shift (default 7) with the new value.

zfs_arc_pc_percent=0% (off) (uint)
    Percent of pagecache to reclaim ARC to.

    This tunable allows the ZFS ARC to play more nicely with the kernel's LRU pagecache. It can guarantee that the ARC size won't collapse under scanning pressure on the pagecache, yet still allows the ARC to be reclaimed down to zfs_arc_min if necessary. This value is specified as percent of pagecache size (as measured by NR_ACTIVE_FILE + NR_INACTIVE_FILE), where that percent may exceed 100. This only operates during memory pressure/reclaim.

zfs_arc_shrinker_limit=0 (int)
    This is a limit on how many pages the ARC shrinker makes available for eviction in response to one page allocation attempt. Note that in practice, the kernel's shrinker can ask us to evict up to about four times this for one allocation attempt. To reduce OOM risk, this limit is applied for kswapd reclaims only.

    For example a value of 10000 (in practice, 160 MiB per allocation attempt with 4 KiB pages) limits the amount of time spent attempting to reclaim ARC memory to less than 100 ms per allocation attempt, even with a small average compressed block size of ~8 KiB.

    The parameter can be set to 0 (zero) to disable the limit, and only applies on Linux.

zfs_arc_shrinker_seeks=2 (int)
    Relative cost of ARC eviction on Linux, AKA number of seeks needed to restore evicted page. Bigger values make ARC more precious and evictions smaller, comparing to other kernel subsystems. Value of 4 means parity with page cache.

zfs_arc_sys_free=0B (u64)
    The target number of bytes the ARC should leave as free memory on the system. If zero, equivalent to the bigger of 512 KiB and all_system_memory/64.

zfs_checksum_events_per_second=20/s (uint)
    Rate limit checksum events to this many per second. Note that this should not be set below the ZED thresholds (currently 10 checksums over 10 seconds) or else the daemon may not trigger any action.

zfs_commit_timeout_pct=10% (uint)
    This controls the amount of time that a ZIL block (lwb) will remain "open" when it isn't "full", and it has a thread waiting for it to be committed to stable storage. The timeout is scaled based on a percentage of the last lwb latency to avoid significantly impacting the latency of each individual transaction record (itx).

zfs_condense_indirect_commit_entry_delay_ms=0ms (int)
    Vdev indirection layer (used for device removal) sleeps for this many milliseconds during mapping generation. Intended for use with the test suite to throttle vdev removal speed.

zfs_condense_indirect_obsolete_pct=25% (uint)
    Minimum percent of obsolete bytes in vdev mapping required to attempt to condense (see zfs_condense_indirect_vdevs_enable). Intended for use with the test suite to facilitate triggering condensing as needed.

zfs_condense_indirect_vdevs_enable=1|0 (int)
    Enable condensing indirect vdev mappings. When set, attempt to condense indirect vdev mappings if the mapping uses more than zfs_condense_min_mapping_bytes bytes of memory and if the obsolete space map object uses more than zfs_condense_max_obsolete_bytes bytes on-disk. The condensing process is an attempt to save memory by removing obsolete mappings.

zfs_condense_max_obsolete_bytes=1073741824B (1 GiB) (u64)
    Only attempt to condense indirect vdev mappings if the on-disk size of the obsolete space map object is greater than this number of bytes (see zfs_condense_indirect_vdevs_enable).

zfs_condense_min_mapping_bytes=131072B (128 KiB) (u64)
    Minimum size vdev mapping to attempt to condense (see zfs_condense_indirect_vdevs_enable).

zfs_dbgmsg_enable=1|0 (int)
    Internally ZFS keeps a small log to facilitate debugging. The log is enabled by default, and can be disabled by unsetting this option. The contents of the log can be accessed by reading /proc/spl/kstat/zfs/dbgmsg. Writing 0 to the file clears the log.

    This setting does not influence debug prints due to zfs_flags.

zfs_dbgmsg_maxsize=4194304B (4 MiB) (uint)
    Maximum size of the internal ZFS debug log.

zfs_dbuf_state_index=0 (int)
    Historically used for controlling what reporting was available under /proc/spl/kstat/zfs. No effect.

zfs_deadman_checktime_ms=60000ms (1 min) (u64)
    Check time in milliseconds. This defines the frequency at which we check for hung I/O requests and potentially invoke the zfs_deadman_failmode behavior.

zfs_deadman_enabled=1|0 (int)
    When a pool sync operation takes longer than zfs_deadman_synctime_ms, or when an individual I/O operation takes longer than zfs_deadman_ziotime_ms, then the operation is considered to be "hung". If zfs_deadman_enabled is set, then the deadman behavior is invoked as described by zfs_deadman_failmode. By default, the deadman is enabled and set to wait which results in "hung" I/O operations only being logged. The deadman is automatically disabled when a pool gets suspended.

zfs_deadman_events_per_second=1/s (int)
    Rate limit deadman zevents (which report hung I/O operations) to this many per second.

zfs_deadman_failmode=wait (charp)
    Controls the failure behavior when the deadman detects a "hung" I/O operation. Valid values are:
    wait
        Wait for a "hung" operation to complete. For each "hung" operation a "deadman" event will be posted describing that operation.
    continue
        Attempt to recover from a "hung" operation by re-dispatching it to the I/O pipeline if possible.
    panic
        Panic the system. This can be used to facilitate automatic fail-over to a properly configured fail-over partner.

zfs_deadman_synctime_ms=600000ms (10 min) (u64)
    Interval in milliseconds after which the deadman is triggered and also the interval after which a pool sync operation is considered to be "hung". Once this limit is exceeded the deadman will be invoked every zfs_deadman_checktime_ms milliseconds until the pool sync completes.

zfs_deadman_ziotime_ms=300000ms (5 min) (u64)
    Interval in milliseconds after which the deadman is triggered and an individual I/O operation is considered to be "hung". As long as the operation remains "hung", the deadman will be invoked every zfs_deadman_checktime_ms milliseconds until the operation completes.

zfs_dedup_prefetch=0|1 (int)
    Enable prefetching dedup-ed blocks which are going to be freed.

zfs_dedup_log_flush_min_time_ms=1000(uint)
    Minimum time to spend on dedup log flush each transaction.

    At least this long will be spent flushing dedup log entries each transaction, up to zfs_txg_timeout. This occurs even if doing so would delay the transaction, that is, other IO completes under this time.

zfs_dedup_log_flush_entries_min=100(uint)
    Flush at least this many entries each transaction.

    OpenZFS will flush a fraction of the log every TXG, to keep the size proportional to the ingest rate (see zfs_dedup_log_flush_txgs). This sets the minimum for that estimate, which prevents the backlog from completely draining if the ingest rate falls. Raising it can force OpenZFS to flush more aggressively, reducing the backlog to zero more quickly, but can make it less able to back off if log flushing would compete with other IO too much.

zfs_dedup_log_flush_entries_max=UINT_MAX(uint)
    Flush at most this many entries each transaction.

    Mostly used for debugging purposes.

zfs_dedup_log_flush_txgs=100(uint)
    Target number of TXGs to process the whole dedup log.

    Every TXG, OpenZFS will process the inverse of this number times the size of the DDT backlog. This will keep the backlog at a size roughly equal to the ingest rate times this value. This offers a balance between a more efficient DDT log, with better aggregation, and shorter import times, which increase as the size of the DDT log increases. Increasing this value will result in a more efficient DDT log, but longer import times.

zfs_dedup_log_cap=UINT_MAX(uint)
    Soft cap for the size of the current dedup log.

    If the log is larger than this size, we increase the aggressiveness of the flushing to try to bring it back down to the soft cap. Setting it will reduce import times, but will reduce the efficiency of the DDT log, increasing the expected number of IOs required to flush the same amount of data.

zfs_dedup_log_hard_cap=0|1 (uint)
    Whether to treat the log cap as a firm cap or not.

    When set to 0 (the default), the zfs_dedup_log_cap will increase the maximum number of log entries we flush in a given txg. This will bring the backlog size down towards the cap, but not at the expense of making TXG syncs take longer. If this is set to 1, the cap acts more like a hard cap than a soft cap; it will also increase the minimum number of log entries we flush per TXG. Enabling it will reduce worst-case import times, at the cost of increased TXG sync times.

zfs_dedup_log_flush_flow_rate_txgs=10(uint)
    Number of transactions to use to compute the flow rate.

    OpenZFS will estimate number of entries changed (ingest rate), number of entries flushed (flush rate) and time spent flushing (flush time rate) and combining these into an overall "flow rate". It will use an exponential weighted moving average over some number of recent transactions to compute these rates. This sets the number of transactions to compute these averages over. Setting it higher can help to smooth out the flow rate in the face of spiky workloads, but will take longer for the flow rate to adjust to a sustained change in the ingress rate.

zfs_dedup_log_txg_max=8(uint)
    Max transactions to before starting to flush dedup logs.

    OpenZFS maintains two dedup logs, one receiving new changes, one flushing. If there is nothing to flush, it will accumulate changes for no more than this many transactions before switching the logs and starting to flush entries out.

zfs_dedup_log_mem_max=0(u64)
    Max memory to use for dedup logs.

    OpenZFS will spend no more than this much memory on maintaining the in-memory dedup log. Flushing will begin when around half this amount is being spent on logs. The default value of 0 will cause it to be set by zfs_dedup_log_mem_max_percent instead.

zfs_dedup_log_mem_max_percent=1% (uint)
    Max memory to use for dedup logs, as a percentage of total memory.

    If zfs_dedup_log_mem_max is not set, it will be initialized as a percentage of the total memory in the system.

zfs_delay_min_dirty_percent=60% (uint)
    Start to delay each transaction once there is this amount of dirty data, expressed as a percentage of zfs_dirty_data_max. This value should be at least zfs_vdev_async_write_active_max_dirty_percent. See ZFS TRANSACTION DELAY.

zfs_delay_scale=500000 (int)
    This controls how quickly the transaction delay approaches infinity. Larger values cause longer delays for a given amount of dirty data.

    For the smoothest delay, this value should be about 1 billion divided by the maximum number of operations per second. This will smoothly handle between ten times and a tenth of this number. See ZFS TRANSACTION DELAY.

    zfs_delay_scale × zfs_dirty_data_max must be smaller than 2^64.

zfs_dio_write_verify_events_per_second=20/s (uint)
    Rate limit Direct I/O write verify events to this many per second.

zfs_disable_ivset_guid_check=0|1 (int)
    Disables requirement for IVset GUIDs to be present and match when doing a raw receive of encrypted datasets. Intended for users whose pools were created with OpenZFS pre-release versions and now have compatibility issues.

zfs_key_max_salt_uses=400000000 (4*10^8) (ulong)
    Maximum number of uses of a single salt value before generating a new one for encrypted datasets. The default value is also the maximum.

zfs_object_mutex_size=64 (uint)
    Size of the znode hashtable used for holds.

    Due to the need to hold locks on objects that may not exist yet, kernel mutexes are not created per-object and instead a hashtable is used where collisions will result in objects waiting when there is not actually contention on the same object.

zfs_slow_io_events_per_second=20/s (int)
    Rate limit delay zevents (which report slow I/O operations) to this many per second.

zfs_unflushed_max_mem_amt=1073741824B (1 GiB) (u64)
    Upper-bound limit for unflushed metadata changes to be held by the log spacemap in memory, in bytes.

zfs_unflushed_max_mem_ppm=1000ppm (0.1%) (u64)
    Part of overall system memory that ZFS allows to be used for unflushed metadata changes by the log spacemap, in millionths.

zfs_unflushed_log_block_max=131072 (128k) (u64)
    Describes the maximum number of log spacemap blocks allowed for each pool. The default value means that the space in all the log spacemaps can add up to no more than 131072 blocks (which means 16 GiB of logical space before compression and ditto blocks, assuming that blocksize is 128 KiB).

    This tunable is important because it involves a trade-off between import time after an unclean export and the frequency of flushing metaslabs. The higher this number is, the more log blocks we allow when the pool is active which means that we flush metaslabs less often and thus decrease the number of I/O operations for spacemap updates per TXG. At the same time though, that means that in the event of an unclean export, there will be more log spacemap blocks for us to read, inducing overhead in the import time of the pool. The lower the number, the amount of flushing increases, destroying log blocks quicker as they become obsolete faster, which leaves less blocks to be read during import time after a crash.

    Each log spacemap block existing during pool import leads to approximately one extra logical I/O issued. This is the reason why this tunable is exposed in terms of blocks rather than space used.

zfs_unflushed_log_block_min=1000 (u64)
    If the number of metaslabs is small and our incoming rate is high, we could get into a situation that we are flushing all our metaslabs every TXG. Thus we always allow at least this many log blocks.

zfs_unflushed_log_block_pct=400% (u64)
    Tunable used to determine the number of blocks that can be used for the spacemap log, expressed as a percentage of the total number of unflushed metaslabs in the pool.

zfs_unflushed_log_txg_max=1000 (u64)
    Tunable limiting maximum time in TXGs any metaslab may remain unflushed. It effectively limits maximum number of unflushed per-TXG spacemap logs that need to be read after unclean pool export.

zfs_unlink_suspend_progress=0|1 (uint)
    When enabled, files will not be asynchronously removed from the list of pending unlinks and the space they consume will be leaked. Once this option has been disabled and the dataset is remounted, the pending unlinks will be processed and the freed space returned to the pool. This option is used by the test suite.

zfs_delete_blocks=20480 (ulong)
    This is the used to define a large file for the purposes of deletion. Files containing more than zfs_delete_blocks will be deleted asynchronously, while smaller files are deleted synchronously. Decreasing this value will reduce the time spent in an unlink(2) system call, at the expense of a longer delay before the freed space is available. This only applies on Linux.

zfs_dirty_data_max= (int)
    Determines the dirty space limit in bytes. Once this limit is exceeded, new writes are halted until space frees up. This parameter takes precedence over zfs_dirty_data_max_percent. See ZFS TRANSACTION DELAY.

    Defaults to physical_ram/10, capped at zfs_dirty_data_max_max.

zfs_dirty_data_max_max= (int)
    Maximum allowable value of zfs_dirty_data_max, expressed in bytes. This limit is only enforced at module load time, and will be ignored if zfs_dirty_data_max is later changed. This parameter takes precedence over zfs_dirty_data_max_max_percent. See ZFS TRANSACTION DELAY.

    Defaults to min(physical_ram/4, 4GiB), or min(physical_ram/4, 1GiB) for 32-bit systems.

zfs_dirty_data_max_max_percent=25% (uint)
    Maximum allowable value of zfs_dirty_data_max, expressed as a percentage of physical RAM. This limit is only enforced at module load time, and will be ignored if zfs_dirty_data_max is later changed. The parameter zfs_dirty_data_max_max takes precedence over this one. See ZFS TRANSACTION DELAY.

zfs_dirty_data_max_percent=10% (uint)
    Determines the dirty space limit, expressed as a percentage of all memory. Once this limit is exceeded, new writes are halted until space frees up. The parameter zfs_dirty_data_max takes precedence over this one. See ZFS TRANSACTION DELAY.

    Subject to zfs_dirty_data_max_max.

zfs_dirty_data_sync_percent=20% (uint)
    Start syncing out a transaction group if there's at least this much dirty data (as a percentage of zfs_dirty_data_max). This should be less than zfs_vdev_async_write_active_min_dirty_percent.

zfs_wrlog_data_max= (int)
    The upper limit of write-transaction ZIL log data size in bytes. Write operations are throttled when approaching the limit until log data is cleared out after transaction group sync. Because of some overhead, it should be set at least 2 times the size of zfs_dirty_data_max to prevent harming normal write throughput. It also should be smaller than the size of the slog device if slog is present.

    Defaults to zfs_dirty_data_max*2

zfs_fallocate_reserve_percent=110% (uint)
    Since ZFS is a copy-on-write filesystem with snapshots, blocks cannot be preallocated for a file in order to guarantee that later writes will not run out of space. Instead, fallocate(2) space preallocation only checks that sufficient space is currently available in the pool or the user's project quota allocation, and then creates a sparse file of the requested size. The requested space is multiplied by zfs_fallocate_reserve_percent to allow additional space for indirect blocks and other internal metadata. Setting this to 0 disables support for fallocate(2) and causes it to return EOPNOTSUPP.

zfs_fletcher_4_impl=fastest (string)
    Select a fletcher 4 implementation.

    Supported selectors are: fastest, scalar, sse2, ssse3, avx2, avx512f, avx512bw, and aarch64_neon. All except fastest and scalar require instruction set extensions to be available, and will only appear if ZFS detects that they are present at runtime. If multiple implementations of fletcher 4 are available, the fastest will be chosen using a micro benchmark. Selecting scalar results in the original CPU-based calculation being used. Selecting any option other than fastest or scalar results in vector instructions from the respective CPU instruction set being used.

zfs_bclone_enabled=1|0 (int)
    Enables access to the block cloning feature. If this setting is 0, then even if feature@block_cloning is enabled, using functions and system calls that attempt to clone blocks will act as though the feature is disabled.

zfs_bclone_wait_dirty=1|0 (int)
    When set to 1 the FICLONE and FICLONERANGE ioctls will wait for any dirty data to be written to disk before proceeding. This ensures that the clone operation reliably succeeds, even if a file is modified and then immediately cloned. Note that for small files this may be slower than simply copying the file. When set to 0 the clone operation will immediately fail if it encounters any dirty blocks. By default waiting is enabled.

zfs_blake3_impl=fastest (string)
    Select a BLAKE3 implementation.

    Supported selectors are: cycle, fastest, generic, sse2, sse41, avx2, avx512. All except cycle, fastest and generic require instruction set extensions to be available, and will only appear if ZFS detects that they are present at runtime. If multiple implementations of BLAKE3 are available, the fastest will be chosen using a micro benchmark. You can see the benchmark results by reading this kstat file: /proc/spl/kstat/zfs/chksum_bench.

zfs_free_bpobj_enabled=1|0 (int)
    Enable/disable the processing of the free_bpobj object.

zfs_async_block_max_blocks=UINT64_MAX (unlimited) (u64)
    Maximum number of blocks freed in a single TXG.

zfs_max_async_dedup_frees=250000 (u64)
    Maximum number of dedup, clone or gang blocks freed in a single TXG. These frees may require additional I/O, making them more expensive.

zfs_async_free_zio_wait_interval=2000 (u64)
    After freeing this many dedup, clone or gang blocks wait for all pending I/Os to complete before continuing.

zfs_vdev_async_read_max_active=3 (uint)
    Maximum asynchronous read I/O operations active to each device. See ZFS I/O SCHEDULER.

zfs_vdev_async_read_min_active=1 (uint)
    Minimum asynchronous read I/O operation active to each device. See ZFS I/O SCHEDULER.

zfs_vdev_async_write_active_max_dirty_percent=60% (uint)
    When the pool has more than this much dirty data, use zfs_vdev_async_write_max_active to limit active async writes. If the dirty data is between the minimum and maximum, the active I/O limit is linearly interpolated. See ZFS I/O SCHEDULER.

zfs_vdev_async_write_active_min_dirty_percent=30% (uint)
    When the pool has less than this much dirty data, use zfs_vdev_async_write_min_active to limit active async writes. If the dirty data is between the minimum and maximum, the active I/O limit is linearly interpolated. See ZFS I/O SCHEDULER.

zfs_vdev_async_write_max_active=10 (uint)
    Maximum asynchronous write I/O operations active to each device. See ZFS I/O SCHEDULER.

zfs_vdev_async_write_min_active=2 (uint)
    Minimum asynchronous write I/O operations active to each device. See ZFS I/O SCHEDULER.

    Lower values are associated with better latency on rotational media but poorer resilver performance. The default value of 2 was chosen as a compromise. A value of 3 has been shown to improve resilver performance further at a cost of further increasing latency.

zfs_vdev_initializing_max_active=1 (uint)
    Maximum initializing I/O operations active to each device. See ZFS I/O SCHEDULER.

zfs_vdev_initializing_min_active=1 (uint)
    Minimum initializing I/O operations active to each device. See ZFS I/O SCHEDULER.

zfs_vdev_max_active=1000 (uint)
    The maximum number of I/O operations active to each device. Ideally, this will be at least the sum of each queue's max_active. See ZFS I/O SCHEDULER.

zfs_vdev_open_timeout_ms=1000 (uint)
    Timeout value to wait before determining a device is missing during import. This is helpful for transient missing paths due to links being briefly removed and recreated in response to udev events.

zfs_vdev_rebuild_max_active=3 (uint)
    Maximum sequential resilver I/O operations active to each device. See ZFS I/O SCHEDULER.

zfs_vdev_rebuild_min_active=1 (uint)
    Minimum sequential resilver I/O operations active to each device. See ZFS I/O SCHEDULER.

zfs_vdev_removal_max_active=2 (uint)
    Maximum removal I/O operations active to each device. See ZFS I/O SCHEDULER.

zfs_vdev_removal_min_active=1 (uint)
    Minimum removal I/O operations active to each device. See ZFS I/O SCHEDULER.

zfs_vdev_scrub_max_active=2 (uint)
    Maximum scrub I/O operations active to each device. See ZFS I/O SCHEDULER.

zfs_vdev_scrub_min_active=1 (uint)
    Minimum scrub I/O operations active to each device. See ZFS I/O SCHEDULER.

zfs_vdev_sync_read_max_active=10 (uint)
    Maximum synchronous read I/O operations active to each device. See ZFS I/O SCHEDULER.

zfs_vdev_sync_read_min_active=10 (uint)
    Minimum synchronous read I/O operations active to each device. See ZFS I/O SCHEDULER.

zfs_vdev_sync_write_max_active=10 (uint)
    Maximum synchronous write I/O operations active to each device. See ZFS I/O SCHEDULER.

zfs_vdev_sync_write_min_active=10 (uint)
    Minimum synchronous write I/O operations active to each device. See ZFS I/O SCHEDULER.

zfs_vdev_trim_max_active=2 (uint)
    Maximum trim/discard I/O operations active to each device. See ZFS I/O SCHEDULER.

zfs_vdev_trim_min_active=1 (uint)
    Minimum trim/discard I/O operations active to each device. See ZFS I/O SCHEDULER.

zfs_vdev_nia_delay=5 (uint)
    For non-interactive I/O (scrub, resilver, removal, initialize and rebuild), the number of concurrently-active I/O operations is limited to zfs_*_min_active, unless the vdev is "idle". When there are no interactive I/O operations active (synchronous or otherwise), and zfs_vdev_nia_delay operations have completed since the last interactive operation, then the vdev is considered to be "idle", and the number of concurrently-active non-interactive operations is increased to zfs_*_max_active. See ZFS I/O SCHEDULER.

zfs_vdev_nia_credit=5 (uint)
    Some HDDs tend to prioritize sequential I/O so strongly, that concurrent random I/O latency reaches several seconds. On some HDDs this happens even if sequential I/O operations are submitted one at a time, and so setting zfs_*_max_active= 1 does not help. To prevent non-interactive I/O, like scrub, from monopolizing the device, no more than zfs_vdev_nia_credit operations can be sent while there are outstanding incomplete interactive operations. This enforced wait ensures the HDD services the interactive I/O within a reasonable amount of time. See ZFS I/O SCHEDULER.

zfs_vdev_failfast_mask=1 (uint)
    Defines if the driver should retire on a given error type. The following options may be bitwise-ored together:
     | Value | Name | Description
     | 1 | Device | No driver retries on device errors
     | 2 | Transport | No driver retries on transport errors.
     | 4 | Driver | No driver retries on driver errors.

zfs_vdev_disk_max_segs=0 (uint)
    Maximum number of segments to add to a BIO (min 4). If this is higher than the maximum allowed by the device queue or the kernel itself, it will be clamped. Setting it to zero will cause the kernel's ideal size to be used. This parameter only applies on Linux.

zfs_expire_snapshot=300s (int)
    Time before expiring .zfs/snapshot.

zfs_admin_snapshot=0|1 (int)
    Allow the creation, removal, or renaming of entries in the .zfs/snapshot directory to cause the creation, destruction, or renaming of snapshots. When enabled, this functionality works both locally and over NFS exports which have the no_root_squash option set.

zfs_snapshot_no_setuid=0|1 (int)
    Whether to disable setuid/setgid support for snapshot mounts triggered by access to the .zfs/snapshot directory by setting the nosuid mount option.

zfs_flags=0 (int)
    Set additional debugging flags. The following flags may be bitwise-ored together:
     | Value | Name | Description
     | 1 | ZFS_DEBUG_DPRINTF | Enable dprintf entries in the debug log.
    * | 2 | ZFS_DEBUG_DBUF_VERIFY | Enable extra dbuf verifications.
    * | 4 | ZFS_DEBUG_DNODE_VERIFY | Enable extra dnode verifications.
     | 8 | ZFS_DEBUG_SNAPNAMES | Enable snapshot name verification.
    * | 16 | ZFS_DEBUG_MODIFY | Check for illegally modified ARC buffers.
     | 64 | ZFS_DEBUG_ZIO_FREE | Enable verification of block frees.
     | 128 | ZFS_DEBUG_HISTOGRAM_VERIFY | Enable extra spacemap histogram verifications.
     | 256 | ZFS_DEBUG_METASLAB_VERIFY | Verify space accounting on disk matches in-memory range_trees.
     | 512 | ZFS_DEBUG_SET_ERROR | Enable SET_ERROR and dprintf entries in the debug log.
     | 1024 | ZFS_DEBUG_INDIRECT_REMAP | Verify split blocks created by device removal.
     | 2048 | ZFS_DEBUG_TRIM | Verify TRIM ranges are always within the allocatable range tree.
     | 4096 | ZFS_DEBUG_LOG_SPACEMAP | Verify that the log summary is consistent with the spacemap log
     |  |  | and enable zfs_dbgmsgs for metaslab loading and flushing.
     | 8192 | ZFS_DEBUG_METASLAB_ALLOC | Enable debugging messages when allocations fail.
     | 16384 | ZFS_DEBUG_BRT | Enable BRT-related debugging messages.
     | 32768 | ZFS_DEBUG_RAIDZ_RECONSTRUCT | Enabled debugging messages for raidz reconstruction.
     | 65536 | ZFS_DEBUG_DDT | Enable DDT-related debugging messages.
    * Requires debug build.

zfs_btree_verify_intensity=0 (uint)
    Enables btree verification. The following settings are cumulative:
     | Value | Description
     | 1 | Verify height.
     | 2 | Verify pointers from children to parent.
     | 3 | Verify element counts.
     | 4 | Verify element order. (expensive)
    * | 5 | Verify unused memory is poisoned. (expensive)
    * Requires debug build.

zfs_free_leak_on_eio=0|1 (int)
    If destroy encounters an EIO while reading metadata (e.g. indirect blocks), space referenced by the missing metadata can not be freed. Normally this causes the background destroy to become "stalled", as it is unable to make forward progress. While in this stalled state, all remaining space to free from the error-encountering filesystem is "temporarily leaked". Set this flag to cause it to ignore the EIO, permanently leak the space from indirect blocks that can not be read, and continue to free everything else that it can.

    The default "stalling" behavior is useful if the storage partially fails (i.e. some but not all I/O operations fail), and then later recovers. In this case, we will be able to continue pool operations while it is partially failed, and when it recovers, we can continue to free the space, with no leaks. Note, however, that this case is actually fairly rare.

    Typically pools either
    1.  fail completely (but perhaps temporarily, e.g. due to a top-level vdev going offline), or
    2.  have localized, permanent errors (e.g. disk returns the wrong data due to bit flip or firmware bug).
    In the former case, this setting does not matter because the pool will be suspended and the sync thread will not be able to make forward progress regardless. In the latter, because the error is permanent, the best we can do is leak the minimum amount of space, which is what setting this flag will do. It is therefore reasonable for this flag to normally be set, but we chose the more conservative approach of not setting it, so that there is no possibility of leaking space in the "partial temporary" failure case.

zfs_free_min_time_ms=500ms (1s) (uint)
    During a zfs destroy operation using the async_destroy feature, a minimum of this much time will be spent working on freeing blocks per TXG.

zfs_obsolete_min_time_ms=500ms (uint)
    Similar to zfs_free_min_time_ms, but for cleanup of old indirection records for removed vdevs.

zfs_immediate_write_sz=32768B (32 KiB) (s64)
    Largest write size to store the data directly into the ZIL if logbias=latency. Larger writes may be written indirectly similar to logbias=throughput. In presence of SLOG this parameter is ignored, as if it was set to infinity, storing all written data into ZIL to not depend on regular vdev latency.

zil_special_is_slog=1|0 (int)
    When enabled, and written blocks go to normal vdevs, treat present special vdevs as SLOGs. Blocks that go to the special vdevs are still written indirectly, as with logbias=throughput. This parameter is ignored if an SLOG is present.

zfs_import_defer_txgs=5 (uint)
    Number of transaction groups to wait after pool import before starting background work such as asynchronous block freeing (from snapshots, clones, and deduplication) and scrub or resilver operations. This allows the pool import and filesystem mounting to complete more quickly without interference from background activities. The default value of 5 transaction groups typically provides sufficient time for import and mount operations to complete on most systems.

zfs_initialize_value=16045690984833335022 (0xDEADBEEFDEADBEEE) (u64)
    Pattern written to vdev free space by zpool-initialize(8).

zfs_initialize_chunk_size=1048576B (1 MiB) (u64)
    Size of writes used by zpool-initialize(8). This option is used by the test suite.

zfs_livelist_max_entries=500000 (5*10^5) (u64)
    The threshold size (in block pointers) at which we create a new sub-livelist. Larger sublists are more costly from a memory perspective but the fewer sublists there are, the lower the cost of insertion.

zfs_livelist_min_percent_shared=75% (int)
    If the amount of shared space between a snapshot and its clone drops below this threshold, the clone turns off the livelist and reverts to the old deletion method. This is in place because livelists no long give us a benefit once a clone has been overwritten enough.

zfs_livelist_condense_new_alloc=0 (int)
    Incremented each time an extra ALLOC blkptr is added to a livelist entry while it is being condensed. This option is used by the test suite to track race conditions.

zfs_livelist_condense_sync_cancel=0 (int)
    Incremented each time livelist condensing is canceled while in spa_livelist_condense_sync(). This option is used by the test suite to track race conditions.

zfs_livelist_condense_sync_pause=0|1 (int)
    When set, the livelist condense process pauses indefinitely before executing the synctask — spa_livelist_condense_sync(). This option is used by the test suite to trigger race conditions.

zfs_livelist_condense_zthr_cancel=0 (int)
    Incremented each time livelist condensing is canceled while in spa_livelist_condense_cb(). This option is used by the test suite to track race conditions.

zfs_livelist_condense_zthr_pause=0|1 (int)
    When set, the livelist condense process pauses indefinitely before executing the open context condensing work in spa_livelist_condense_cb(). This option is used by the test suite to trigger race conditions.

zfs_lua_max_instrlimit=100000000 (10^8) (u64)
    The maximum execution time limit that can be set for a ZFS channel program, specified as a number of Lua instructions.

zfs_lua_max_memlimit=104857600 (100 MiB) (u64)
    The maximum memory limit that can be set for a ZFS channel program, specified in bytes.

zfs_max_dataset_nesting=50 (int)
    The maximum depth of nested datasets. This value can be tuned temporarily to fix existing datasets that exceed the predefined limit.

zfs_max_log_walking=5 (u64)
    The number of past TXGs that the flushing algorithm of the log spacemap feature uses to estimate incoming log blocks.

zfs_max_logsm_summary_length=10 (u64)
    Maximum number of rows allowed in the summary of the spacemap log.

zfs_max_recordsize=16777216 (16 MiB) (uint)
    We currently support block sizes from 512 (512 B) to 16777216 (16 MiB). The benefits of larger blocks, and thus larger I/O, need to be weighed against the cost of COWing a giant block to modify one byte. Additionally, very large blocks can have an impact on I/O latency, and also potentially on the memory allocator. Therefore, we formerly forbade creating blocks larger than 1M. Larger blocks could be created by changing it, and pools with larger blocks can always be imported and used, regardless of this setting.

    Note that it is still limited by default to 1 MiB on x86_32, because Linux's 3/1 memory split doesn't leave much room for 16M chunks.

zfs_allow_redacted_dataset_mount=0|1 (int)
    Allow datasets received with redacted send/receive to be mounted. Normally disabled because these datasets may be missing key data.

zfs_min_metaslabs_to_flush=1 (u64)
    Minimum number of metaslabs to flush per dirty TXG.

zfs_metaslab_fragmentation_threshold=77% (uint)
    Allow metaslabs to keep their active state as long as their fragmentation percentage is no more than this value. An active metaslab that exceeds this threshold will no longer keep its active status allowing better metaslabs to be selected.

zfs_mg_fragmentation_threshold=95% (uint)
    Metaslab groups are considered eligible for allocations if their fragmentation metric (measured as a percentage) is less than or equal to this value. If a metaslab group exceeds this threshold then it will be skipped unless all metaslab groups within the metaslab class have also crossed this threshold.

zfs_mg_noalloc_threshold=0% (uint)
    Defines a threshold at which metaslab groups should be eligible for allocations. The value is expressed as a percentage of free space beyond which a metaslab group is always eligible for allocations. If a metaslab group's free space is less than or equal to the threshold, the allocator will avoid allocating to that group unless all groups in the pool have reached the threshold. Once all groups have reached the threshold, all groups are allowed to accept allocations. The default value of 0 disables the feature and causes all metaslab groups to be eligible for allocations.

    This parameter allows one to deal with pools having heavily imbalanced vdevs such as would be the case when a new vdev has been added. Setting the threshold to a non-zero percentage will stop allocations from being made to vdevs that aren't filled to the specified percentage and allow lesser filled vdevs to acquire more allocations than they otherwise would under the old zfs_mg_alloc_failures facility.

zfs_ddt_data_is_special=1|0 (int)
    If enabled, ZFS will place DDT data into the special allocation class.

zfs_user_indirect_is_special=1|0 (int)
    If enabled, ZFS will place user data indirect blocks into the special allocation class.

zfs_multihost_history=0 (uint)
    Historical statistics for this many latest multihost updates will be available in /proc/spl/kstat/zfs/<pool>/multihost.

zfs_multihost_interval=1000ms (1 s) (u64)
    Used to control the frequency of multihost writes which are performed when the multihost pool property is on. This is one of the factors used to determine the length of the activity check during import.

    The multihost write period is zfs_multihost_interval / leaf-vdevs. On average a multihost write will be issued for each leaf vdev every zfs_multihost_interval milliseconds. In practice, the observed period can vary with the I/O load and this observed value is the delay which is stored in the uberblock.

zfs_multihost_import_intervals=20 (uint)
    Used to control the duration of the activity test on import. Smaller values of zfs_multihost_import_intervals will reduce the import time but increase the risk of failing to detect an active pool. The total activity check time is never allowed to drop below one second.

    On import the activity check waits a minimum amount of time determined by zfs_multihost_interval × zfs_multihost_import_intervals, or the same product computed on the host which last had the pool imported, whichever is greater. The activity check time may be further extended if the value of MMP delay found in the best uberblock indicates actual multihost updates happened at longer intervals than zfs_multihost_interval. A minimum of 100 ms is enforced.

    0 is equivalent to 1.

zfs_multihost_fail_intervals=10 (uint)
    Controls the behavior of the pool when multihost write failures or delays are detected.

    When 0, multihost write failures or delays are ignored. The failures will still be reported to the ZED which depending on its configuration may take action such as suspending the pool or offlining a device.

    Otherwise, the pool will be suspended if zfs_multihost_fail_intervals × zfs_multihost_interval milliseconds pass without a successful MMP write. This guarantees the activity test will see MMP writes if the pool is imported. 1 is equivalent to 2; this is necessary to prevent the pool from being suspended due to normal, small I/O latency variations.

zfs_no_scrub_io=0|1 (int)
    Set to disable scrub I/O. This results in scrubs not actually scrubbing data and simply doing a metadata crawl of the pool instead.

zfs_no_scrub_prefetch=0|1 (int)
    Set to disable block prefetching for scrubs.

zfs_nocacheflush=0|1 (int)
    Disable cache flush operations on disks when writing. Setting this will cause pool corruption on power loss if a volatile out-of-order write cache is enabled.

zfs_nopwrite_enabled=1|0 (int)
    Allow no-operation writes. The occurrence of nopwrites will further depend on other pool properties (i.a. the checksumming and compression algorithms).

zfs_dmu_offset_next_sync=1|0 (int)
    Enable forcing TXG sync to find holes. When enabled forces ZFS to sync data when SEEK_HOLE or SEEK_DATA flags are used allowing holes in a file to be accurately reported. When disabled holes will not be reported in recently dirtied files.

zfs_pd_bytes_max=52428800B (50 MiB) (int)
    The number of bytes which should be prefetched during a pool traversal, like zfs send or other data crawling operations.

zfs_traverse_indirect_prefetch_limit=32 (uint)
    The number of blocks pointed by indirect (non-L0) block which should be prefetched during a pool traversal, like zfs send or other data crawling operations.

zfs_per_txg_dirty_frees_percent=30% (u64)
    Control percentage of dirtied indirect blocks from frees allowed into one TXG. After this threshold is crossed, additional frees will wait until the next TXG. 0 disables this throttle.

zfs_prefetch_disable=0|1 (int)
    Disable predictive prefetch. Note that it leaves "prescient" prefetch (for, e.g., zfs send) intact. Unlike predictive prefetch, prescient prefetch never issues I/O that ends up not being needed, so it can't hurt performance.

zfs_qat_checksum_disable=0|1 (int)
    Disable QAT hardware acceleration for SHA256 checksums. May be unset after the ZFS modules have been loaded to initialize the QAT hardware as long as support is compiled in and the QAT driver is present.

zfs_qat_compress_disable=0|1 (int)
    Disable QAT hardware acceleration for gzip compression. May be unset after the ZFS modules have been loaded to initialize the QAT hardware as long as support is compiled in and the QAT driver is present.

zfs_qat_encrypt_disable=0|1 (int)
    Disable QAT hardware acceleration for AES-GCM encryption. May be unset after the ZFS modules have been loaded to initialize the QAT hardware as long as support is compiled in and the QAT driver is present.

zfs_vnops_read_chunk_size=33554432B (32 MiB) (u64)
    Bytes to read per chunk.

zfs_read_history=0 (uint)
    Historical statistics for this many latest reads will be available in /proc/spl/kstat/zfs/<pool>/reads.

zfs_read_history_hits=0|1 (int)
    Include cache hits in read history

zfs_rebuild_max_segment=1048576B (1 MiB) (u64)
    Maximum read segment size to issue when sequentially resilvering a top-level vdev.

zfs_rebuild_scrub_enabled=1|0 (int)
    Automatically start a pool scrub when the last active sequential resilver completes in order to verify the checksums of all blocks which have been resilvered. This is enabled by default and strongly recommended.

zfs_rebuild_vdev_limit=67108864B (64 MiB) (u64)
    Maximum amount of I/O that can be concurrently issued for a sequential resilver per leaf device, given in bytes.

zfs_reconstruct_indirect_combinations_max=4096 (int)
    If an indirect split block contains more than this many possible unique combinations when being reconstructed, consider it too computationally expensive to check them all. Instead, try at most this many randomly selected combinations each time the block is accessed. This allows all segment copies to participate fairly in the reconstruction when all combinations cannot be checked and prevents repeated use of one bad copy.

zfs_recover=0|1 (int)
    Set to attempt to recover from fatal errors. This should only be used as a last resort, as it typically results in leaked space, or worse.

zfs_removal_ignore_errors=0|1 (int)
    Ignore hard I/O errors during device removal. When set, if a device encounters a hard I/O error during the removal process the removal will not be canceled. This can result in a normally recoverable block becoming permanently damaged and is hence not recommended. This should only be used as a last resort when the pool cannot be returned to a healthy state prior to removing the device.

zfs_removal_suspend_progress=0|1 (uint)
    This is used by the test suite so that it can ensure that certain actions happen while in the middle of a removal.

zfs_remove_max_segment=16777216B (16 MiB) (uint)
    The largest contiguous segment that we will attempt to allocate when removing a device. If there is a performance problem with attempting to allocate large blocks, consider decreasing this. The default value is also the maximum.

zfs_resilver_disable_defer=0|1 (int)
    Ignore the resilver_defer feature, causing an operation that would start a resilver to immediately restart the one in progress.

zfs_resilver_defer_percent=10% (uint)
    If the ongoing resilver progress is below this threshold, a new resilver will restart from scratch instead of being deferred after the current one finishes, even if the resilver_defer feature is enabled.

zfs_resilver_min_time_ms=1500ms (uint)
    Resilvers are processed by the sync thread. While resilvering, it will spend at least this much time working on a resilver between TXG flushes.

zfs_scan_ignore_errors=0|1 (int)
    If set, remove the DTL (dirty time list) upon completion of a pool scan (scrub), even if there were unrepairable errors. Intended to be used during pool repair or recovery to stop resilvering when the pool is next imported.

zfs_scrub_after_expand=1|0 (int)
    Automatically start a pool scrub after a RAIDZ expansion completes in order to verify the checksums of all blocks which have been copied during the expansion. This is enabled by default and strongly recommended.

zfs_scrub_min_time_ms=750ms (uint)
    Scrubs are processed by the sync thread. While scrubbing, it will spend at least this much time working on a scrub between TXG flushes.

zfs_scrub_error_blocks_per_txg=4096 (uint)
    Error blocks to be scrubbed in one txg.

zfs_scan_checkpoint_intval=7200s (2 hour) (uint)
    To preserve progress across reboots, the sequential scan algorithm periodically needs to stop metadata scanning and issue all the verification I/O to disk. The frequency of this flushing is determined by this tunable.

zfs_scan_fill_weight=3 (uint)
    This tunable affects how scrub and resilver I/O segments are ordered. A higher number indicates that we care more about how filled in a segment is, while a lower number indicates we care more about the size of the extent without considering the gaps within a segment. This value is only tunable upon module insertion. Changing the value afterwards will have no effect on scrub or resilver performance.

zfs_scan_issue_strategy=0 (uint)
    Determines the order that data will be verified while scrubbing or resilvering:
    1   Data will be verified as sequentially as possible, given the amount of memory reserved for scrubbing (see zfs_scan_mem_lim_fact). This may improve scrub performance if the pool's data is very fragmented.
    2   The largest mostly-contiguous chunk of found data will be verified first. By deferring scrubbing of small segments, we may later find adjacent data to coalesce and increase the segment size.
    0   Use strategy 1 during normal verification and strategy 2 while taking a checkpoint.

zfs_scan_legacy=0|1 (int)
    If unset, indicates that scrubs and resilvers will gather metadata in memory before issuing sequential I/O. Otherwise indicates that the legacy algorithm will be used, where I/O is initiated as soon as it is discovered. Unsetting will not affect scrubs or resilvers that are already in progress.

zfs_scan_max_ext_gap=2097152B (2 MiB) (int)
    Sets the largest gap in bytes between scrub/resilver I/O operations that will still be considered sequential for sorting purposes. Changing this value will not affect scrubs or resilvers that are already in progress.

zfs_scan_mem_lim_fact=20^-1 (uint)
    Maximum fraction of RAM used for I/O sorting by sequential scan algorithm. This tunable determines the hard limit for I/O sorting memory usage. When the hard limit is reached we stop scanning metadata and start issuing data verification I/O. This is done until we get below the soft limit.

zfs_scan_mem_lim_soft_fact=20^-1 (uint)
    The fraction of the hard limit used to determined the soft limit for I/O sorting by the sequential scan algorithm. When we cross this limit from below no action is taken. When we cross this limit from above it is because we are issuing verification I/O. In this case (unless the metadata scan is done) we stop issuing verification I/O and start scanning metadata again until we get to the hard limit.

zfs_scan_report_txgs=0|1 (uint)
    When reporting resilver throughput and estimated completion time use the performance observed over roughly the last zfs_scan_report_txgs TXGs. When set to zero performance is calculated over the time between checkpoints.

zfs_scan_strict_mem_lim=0|1 (int)
    Enforce tight memory limits on pool scans when a sequential scan is in progress. When disabled, the memory limit may be exceeded by fast disks.

zfs_scan_suspend_progress=0|1 (int)
    Freezes a scrub/resilver in progress without actually pausing it. Intended for testing/debugging.

zfs_scan_vdev_limit=16777216B (16 MiB) (int)
    Maximum amount of data that can be concurrently issued at once for scrubs and resilvers per leaf device, given in bytes.

zfs_send_corrupt_data=0|1 (int)
    Allow sending of corrupt data (ignore read/checksum errors when sending).

zfs_send_unmodified_spill_blocks=1|0 (int)
    Include unmodified spill blocks in the send stream. Under certain circumstances, previous versions of ZFS could incorrectly remove the spill block from an existing object. Including unmodified copies of the spill blocks creates a backwards-compatible stream which will recreate a spill block if it was incorrectly removed.

zfs_send_no_prefetch_queue_ff=20^-1 (uint)
    The fill fraction of the zfs send internal queues. The fill fraction controls the timing with which internal threads are woken up.

zfs_send_no_prefetch_queue_length=1048576B (1 MiB) (uint)
    The maximum number of bytes allowed in zfs send's internal queues.

zfs_send_queue_ff=20^-1 (uint)
    The fill fraction of the zfs send prefetch queue. The fill fraction controls the timing with which internal threads are woken up.

zfs_send_queue_length=16777216B (16 MiB) (uint)
    The maximum number of bytes allowed that will be prefetched by zfs send. This value must be at least twice the maximum block size in use.

zfs_recv_queue_ff=20^-1 (uint)
    The fill fraction of the zfs receive queue. The fill fraction controls the timing with which internal threads are woken up.

zfs_recv_queue_length=16777216B (16 MiB) (uint)
    The maximum number of bytes allowed in the zfs receive queue. This value must be at least twice the maximum block size in use.

zfs_recv_write_batch_size=1048576B (1 MiB) (uint)
    The maximum amount of data, in bytes, that zfs receive will write in one DMU transaction. This is the uncompressed size, even when receiving a compressed send stream. This setting will not reduce the write size below a single block. Capped at a maximum of 32 MiB.

zfs_recv_best_effort_corrective=0 (int)
    When this variable is set to non-zero a corrective receive:
    1.  Does not enforce the restriction of source & destination snapshot GUIDs matching.
    2.  If there is an error during healing, the healing receive is not terminated instead it moves on to the next record.

zfs_override_estimate_recordsize=0|1 (uint)
    Setting this variable overrides the default logic for estimating block sizes when doing a zfs send. The default heuristic is that the average block size will be the current recordsize. Override this value if most data in your dataset is not of that size and you require accurate zfs send size estimates.

zfs_sync_pass_deferred_free=2 (uint)
    Flushing of data to disk is done in passes. Defer frees starting in this pass.

zfs_spa_discard_memory_limit=16777216B (16 MiB) (int)
    Maximum memory used for prefetching a checkpoint's space map on each vdev while discarding the checkpoint.

zfs_spa_note_txg_time=600 (uint)
    This parameter defines, in seconds, how often the TXG time database will record a new TXG if it has changed. After the specified time interval has passed, and if the TXG number has changed, the new value is recorded in the database. These timestamps can later be used for more granular operations, such as scrubbing.

zfs_spa_flush_txg_time=600 (uint)
    This parameter defines, in seconds, how often the ZFS will flush the TXG time database to disk. It ensures that the data is actually written to persistent storage, which helps preserve the database in case of unexpected shutdown. The database is also automatically flushed during the export sequence.

zfs_special_class_metadata_reserve_pct=25% (uint)
    Only allow small data blocks to be allocated on the special and dedup vdev types when the available free space percentage on these vdevs exceeds this value. This ensures reserved space is available for pool metadata as the special vdevs approach capacity.

zfs_sync_pass_dont_compress=8 (uint)
    Starting in this sync pass, disable compression (including of metadata). With the default setting, in practice, we don't have this many sync passes, so this has no effect.

    The original intent was that disabling compression would help the sync passes to converge. However, in practice, disabling compression increases the average number of sync passes; because when we turn compression off, many blocks' size will change, and thus we have to re-allocate (not overwrite) them. It also increases the number of 128 KiB allocations (e.g. for indirect blocks and spacemaps) because these will not be compressed. The 128 KiB allocations are especially detrimental to performance on highly fragmented systems, which may have very few free segments of this size, and may need to load new metaslabs to satisfy these allocations.

zfs_sync_pass_rewrite=2 (uint)
    Rewrite new block pointers starting in this pass.

zfs_trim_extent_bytes_max=134217728B (128 MiB) (uint)
    Maximum size of TRIM command. Larger ranges will be split into chunks no larger than this value before issuing.

zfs_trim_extent_bytes_min=32768B (32 KiB) (uint)
    Minimum size of TRIM commands. TRIM ranges smaller than this will be skipped, unless they're part of a larger range which was chunked. This is done because it's common for these small TRIMs to negatively impact overall performance.

zfs_trim_metaslab_skip=0|1 (uint)
    Skip uninitialized metaslabs during the TRIM process. This option is useful for pools constructed from large thinly-provisioned devices where TRIM operations are slow. As a pool ages, an increasing fraction of the pool's metaslabs will be initialized, progressively degrading the usefulness of this option. This setting is stored when starting a manual TRIM and will persist for the duration of the requested TRIM.

zfs_trim_queue_limit=10 (uint)
    Maximum number of queued TRIMs outstanding per leaf vdev. The number of concurrent TRIM commands issued to the device is controlled by zfs_vdev_trim_min_active and zfs_vdev_trim_max_active.

zfs_trim_txg_batch=32 (uint)
    The number of transaction groups' worth of frees which should be aggregated before TRIM operations are issued to the device. This setting represents a trade-off between issuing larger, more efficient TRIM operations and the delay before the recently trimmed space is available for use by the device.

    Increasing this value will allow frees to be aggregated for a longer time. This will result is larger TRIM operations and potentially increased memory usage. Decreasing this value will have the opposite effect. The default of 32 was determined to be a reasonable compromise.

zfs_txg_history=100 (uint)
    Historical statistics for this many latest TXGs will be available in /proc/spl/kstat/zfs/<pool>/TXGs.

zfs_txg_timeout=5s (uint)
    Flush dirty data to disk at least every this many seconds (maximum TXG duration).

zfs_vdev_aggregation_limit=1048576B (1 MiB) (uint)
    Max vdev I/O aggregation size.

zfs_vdev_aggregation_limit_non_rotating=131072B (128 KiB) (uint)
    Max vdev I/O aggregation size for non-rotating media.

zfs_vdev_mirror_rotating_inc=0 (int)
    A number by which the balancing algorithm increments the load calculation for the purpose of selecting the least busy mirror member when an I/O operation immediately follows its predecessor on rotational vdevs for the purpose of making decisions based on load.

zfs_vdev_mirror_rotating_seek_inc=5 (int)
    A number by which the balancing algorithm increments the load calculation for the purpose of selecting the least busy mirror member when an I/O operation lacks locality as defined by zfs_vdev_mirror_rotating_seek_offset. Operations within this that are not immediately following the previous operation are incremented by half.

zfs_vdev_mirror_rotating_seek_offset=1048576B (1 MiB) (int)
    The maximum distance for the last queued I/O operation in which the balancing algorithm considers an operation to have locality. See ZFS I/O SCHEDULER.

zfs_vdev_mirror_non_rotating_inc=0 (int)
    A number by which the balancing algorithm increments the load calculation for the purpose of selecting the least busy mirror member on non-rotational vdevs when I/O operations do not immediately follow one another.

zfs_vdev_mirror_non_rotating_seek_inc=1 (int)
    A number by which the balancing algorithm increments the load calculation for the purpose of selecting the least busy mirror member when an I/O operation lacks locality as defined by the zfs_vdev_mirror_rotating_seek_offset. Operations within this that are not immediately following the previous operation are incremented by half.

zfs_vdev_read_gap_limit=32768B (32 KiB) (uint)
    Aggregate read I/O operations if the on-disk gap between them is within this threshold.

zfs_vdev_write_gap_limit=4096B (4 KiB) (uint)
    Aggregate write I/O operations if the on-disk gap between them is within this threshold.

zfs_vdev_raidz_impl=fastest (string)
    Select the raidz parity implementation to use.

    Variants that don't depend on CPU-specific features may be selected on module load, as they are supported on all systems. The remaining options may only be set after the module is loaded, as they are available only if the implementations are compiled in and supported on the running system.

    Once the module is loaded, /sys/module/zfs/parameters/zfs_vdev_raidz_impl will show the available options, with the currently selected one enclosed in square brackets.

    fastest | selected by built-in benchmark
    original | original implementation
    scalar | scalar implementation
    sse2 | SSE2 instruction set | 64-bit x86
    ssse3 | SSSE3 instruction set | 64-bit x86
    avx2 | AVX2 instruction set | 64-bit x86
    avx512f | AVX512F instruction set | 64-bit x86
    avx512bw | AVX512F & AVX512BW instruction sets | 64-bit x86
    aarch64_neon | NEON | Aarch64/64-bit ARMv8
    aarch64_neonx2 | NEON with more unrolling | Aarch64/64-bit ARMv8
    powerpc_altivec | Altivec | PowerPC

zfs_zevent_len_max=512 (uint)
    Max event queue length. Events in the queue can be viewed with zpool-events(8).

zfs_zevent_retain_max=2000 (int)
    Maximum recent zevent records to retain for duplicate checking. Setting this to 0 disables duplicate detection.

zfs_zevent_retain_expire_secs=900s (15 min) (int)
    Lifespan for a recent ereport that was retained for duplicate checking.

zfs_zil_clean_taskq_maxalloc=1048576 (int)
    The maximum number of taskq entries that are allowed to be cached. When this limit is exceeded transaction records (itxs) will be cleaned synchronously.

zfs_zil_clean_taskq_minalloc=1024 (int)
    The number of taskq entries that are pre-populated when the taskq is first created and are immediately available for use.

zfs_zil_clean_taskq_nthr_pct=100% (int)
    This controls the number of threads used by dp_zil_clean_taskq. The default value of 100% will create a maximum of one thread per CPU.

zil_maxblocksize=131072B (128 KiB) (uint)
    This sets the maximum block size used by the ZIL. On very fragmented pools, lowering this (typically to 36 KiB) can improve performance.

zil_maxcopied=7680B (7.5 KiB) (uint)
    This sets the maximum number of write bytes logged via WR_COPIED. It tunes a tradeoff between additional memory copy and possibly worse log space efficiency vs additional range lock/unlock.

zil_nocacheflush=0|1 (int)
    Disable the cache flush commands that are normally sent to disk by the ZIL after an LWB write has completed. Setting this will cause ZIL corruption on power loss if a volatile out-of-order write cache is enabled.

zil_replay_disable=0|1 (int)
    Disable intent logging replay. Can be disabled for recovery from corrupted ZIL.

zil_slog_bulk=67108864B (64 MiB) (u64)
    Limit SLOG write size per commit executed with synchronous priority. Any writes above that will be executed with lower (asynchronous) priority to limit potential SLOG device abuse by single active ZIL writer.

zfs_zil_saxattr=1|0 (int)
    Setting this tunable to zero disables ZIL logging of new xattr=sa records if the org.openzfs:zilsaxattr feature is enabled on the pool. This would only be necessary to work around bugs in the ZIL logging or replay code for this record type. The tunable has no effect if the feature is disabled.

zfs_embedded_slog_min_ms=64 (uint)
    Usually, one metaslab from each normal and special class vdev is dedicated for use by the ZIL to log synchronous writes. However, if there are fewer than zfs_embedded_slog_min_ms metaslabs in the vdev, this functionality is disabled. This ensures that we don't set aside an unreasonable amount of space for the ZIL.

zstd_earlyabort_pass=1 (uint)
    Whether heuristic for detection of incompressible data with zstd levels >= 3 using LZ4 and zstd-1 passes is enabled.

zstd_abort_size=131072 (uint)
    Minimal uncompressed size (inclusive) of a record before the early abort heuristic will be attempted.

zio_deadman_log_all=0|1 (int)
    If non-zero, the zio deadman will produce debugging messages (see zfs_dbgmsg_enable) for all zios, rather than only for leaf zios possessing a vdev. This is meant to be used by developers to gain diagnostic information for hang conditions which don't involve a mutex or other locking primitive: typically conditions in which a thread in the zio pipeline is looping indefinitely.

zio_slow_io_ms=30000ms (30 s) (int)
    When an I/O operation takes more than this much time to complete, it's marked as slow. Each slow operation causes a delay zevent. Slow I/O counters can be seen with zpool status -s.

zio_dva_throttle_enabled=1|0 (int)
    Throttle block allocations in the I/O pipeline. This allows for dynamic allocation distribution based on device performance.

zfs_xattr_compat=0|1 (int)
    Control the naming scheme used when setting new xattrs in the user namespace. If 0 (the default on Linux), user namespace xattr names are prefixed with the namespace, to be backwards compatible with previous versions of ZFS on Linux. If 1 (the default on FreeBSD), user namespace xattr names are not prefixed, to be backwards compatible with previous versions of ZFS on illumos and FreeBSD.

    Either naming scheme can be read on this and future versions of ZFS, regardless of this tunable, but legacy ZFS on illumos or FreeBSD are unable to read user namespace xattrs written in the Linux format, and legacy versions of ZFS on Linux are unable to read user namespace xattrs written in the legacy ZFS format.

    An existing xattr with the alternate naming scheme is removed when overwriting the xattr so as to not accumulate duplicates.

zio_requeue_io_start_cut_in_line=0|1 (int)
    Prioritize requeued I/O.

zfs_delete_inode=0|1 (int)
    Sets whether the kernel should free an inode structure when the last reference is released, or cache it in memory. Intended for testing/debugging.

    A live inode structure "pins" versious internal OpenZFS structures in memory, which can result in large amounts of "unusable" memory on systems with lots of infrequently-accessed files, until the kernel's memory pressure mechanism asks OpenZFS to release them.

    The default value of 0 always caches inodes that appear to still exist on disk. Setting it to 1 will immediately release unused inodes and their associated memory back to the dbuf cache or the ARC for reuse, but may reduce performance if inodes are frequently evicted and reloaded.

    This parameter is only available on Linux.

zfs_delete_dentry=0|1 (int)
    Sets whether the kernel should free a dentry structure when it is no longer required, or hold it in the dentry cache. Intended for testing/debugging. Since a dentry structure holds an inode reference, a cached dentry can "pin" an inode in memory indefinitely, along with associated OpenZFS structures (See zfs_delete_inode).

    The default value of 0 instructs the kernel to cache entries and their associated inodes when they are no longer directly referenced. They will be reclaimed as part of the kernel's normal cache management processes. Setting it to 1 will instruct the kernel to release directory entries and their inodes as soon as they are no longer referenced by the filesystem.

    This parameter is only available on Linux.

zio_taskq_batch_pct=80% (uint)
    Percentage of online CPUs which will run a worker thread for I/O. These workers are responsible for I/O work such as compression, encryption, checksum and parity calculations. Fractional number of CPUs will be rounded down.

    The default value of 80% was chosen to avoid using all CPUs which can result in latency issues and inconsistent application performance, especially when slower compression and/or checksumming is enabled. Set value only applies to pools imported/created after that.

zio_taskq_batch_tpq=0 (uint)
    Number of worker threads per taskq. Higher values improve I/O ordering and CPU utilization, while lower reduce lock contention. Set value only applies to pools imported/created after that.

    If 0, generate a system-dependent value close to 6 threads per taskq. Set value only applies to pools imported/created after that.

zio_taskq_write_tpq=16 (uint)
    Determines the minimum number of threads per write issue taskq. Higher values improve CPU utilization on high throughput, while lower reduce taskq locks contention on high IOPS. Set value only applies to pools imported/created after that.

zio_taskq_read=fixed,1,8 null scale null (charp)
    Set the queue and thread configuration for the IO read queues. This is an advanced debugging parameter. Don't change this unless you understand what it does. Each of the four values corresponds to the issue, issue high-priority, interrupt, and interrupt high-priority queues. Valid values are fixed,N,M (M queues with N threads each), scale[,MIN] (scale with CPUs, minimum MIN total threads), sync, and null. Set values only apply to pools imported/created after that.

zio_taskq_write=sync null scale null (charp)
    Set the queue and thread configuration for the IO write queues. This is an advanced debugging parameter. Don't change this unless you understand what it does. Each of the four values corresponds to the issue, issue high-priority, interrupt, and interrupt high-priority queues. Valid values are fixed,N,M (M queues with N threads each), scale[,MIN] (scale with CPUs, minimum MIN total threads), sync, and null. Set values only apply to pools imported/created after that.

zio_taskq_free=scale,32 null null null (charp)
    Set the queue and thread configuration for the IO free queues. This is an advanced debugging parameter. Don't change this unless you understand what it does. Each of the four values corresponds to the issue, issue high-priority, interrupt, and interrupt high-priority queues. Valid values are fixed,N,M (M queues with N threads each), scale[,MIN] (scale with CPUs, minimum MIN total threads), sync, and null. The default uses a minimum of 32 threads to improve parallelism for DDT and BRT metadata operations during frees. Set values only apply to pools imported/created after that.

zvol_inhibit_dev=0|1 (uint)
    Do not create zvol device nodes. This may slightly improve startup time on systems with a very large number of zvols.

zvol_major=230 (uint)
    Major number for zvol block devices.

zvol_max_discard_blocks=16384 (long)
    Discard (TRIM) operations done on zvols will be done in batches of this many blocks, where block size is determined by the volblocksize property of a zvol.

zvol_prefetch_bytes=131072B (128 KiB) (uint)
    When adding a zvol to the system, prefetch this many bytes from the start and end of the volume. Prefetching these regions of the volume is desirable, because they are likely to be accessed immediately by blkid(8) or the kernel partitioner.

zvol_request_sync=0|1 (uint)
    When processing I/O requests for a zvol, submit them synchronously. This effectively limits the queue depth to 1 for each I/O submitter. When unset, requests are handled asynchronously by a thread pool. The number of requests which can be handled concurrently is controlled by zvol_threads. zvol_request_sync is ignored when running on a kernel that supports block multiqueue (blk-mq).

zvol_num_taskqs=0 (uint)
    Number of zvol taskqs. If 0 (the default) then scaling is done internally to prefer 6 threads per taskq. This only applies on Linux.

zvol_threads=0 (uint)
    The number of system wide threads to use for processing zvol block IOs. If 0 (the default) then internally set zvol_threads to the number of CPUs present or 32 (whichever is greater).

zvol_blk_mq_threads=0 (uint)
    The number of threads per zvol to use for queuing IO requests. This parameter will only appear if your kernel supports blk-mq and is only read and assigned to a zvol at zvol load time. If 0 (the default) then internally set zvol_blk_mq_threads to the number of CPUs present.

zvol_use_blk_mq=0|1 (uint)
    Set to 1 to use the blk-mq API for zvols. Set to 0 (the default) to use the legacy zvol APIs. This setting can give better or worse zvol performance depending on the workload. This parameter will only appear if your kernel supports blk-mq and is only read and assigned to a zvol at zvol load time.

zvol_blk_mq_blocks_per_thread=8 (uint)
    If zvol_use_blk_mq is enabled, then process this number of volblocksize-sized blocks per zvol thread. This tunable can be use to favor better performance for zvol reads (lower values) or writes (higher values). If set to 0, then the zvol layer will process the maximum number of blocks per thread that it can. This parameter will only appear if your kernel supports blk-mq and is only applied at each zvol's load time.

zvol_blk_mq_queue_depth=0 (uint)
    The queue_depth value for the zvol blk-mq interface. This parameter will only appear if your kernel supports blk-mq and is only applied at each zvol's load time. If 0 (the default) then use the kernel's default queue depth. Values are clamped to the kernel's BLKDEV_MIN_RQ and BLKDEV_MAX_RQ/BLKDEV_DEFAULT_RQ limits.

zvol_volmode=1 (uint)
    Defines zvol block devices behavior when volmode=default:
    1   equivalent to full
    2   equivalent to dev
    3   equivalent to none

zvol_enforce_quotas=0|1 (uint)
    Enable strict ZVOL quota enforcement. The strict quota enforcement may have a performance impact.

ZFS I/O SCHEDULER
ZFS issues I/O operations to leaf vdevs to satisfy and complete I/O operations. The scheduler determines when and in what order those operations are issued. The scheduler divides operations into five I/O classes, prioritized in the following order: sync read, sync write, async read, async write, and scrub/resilver. Each queue defines the minimum and maximum number of concurrent operations that may be issued to the device. In addition, the device has an aggregate maximum, zfs_vdev_max_active. Note that the sum of the per-queue minima must not exceed the aggregate maximum. If the sum of the per-queue maxima exceeds the aggregate maximum, then the number of active operations may reach zfs_vdev_max_active, in which case no further operations will be issued, regardless of whether all per-queue minima have been met.

For many physical devices, throughput increases with the number of concurrent operations, but latency typically suffers. Furthermore, physical devices typically have a limit at which more concurrent operations have no effect on throughput or can actually cause it to decrease.

The scheduler selects the next operation to issue by first looking for an I/O class whose minimum has not been satisfied. Once all are satisfied and the aggregate maximum has not been hit, the scheduler looks for classes whose maximum has not been satisfied. Iteration through the I/O classes is done in the order specified above. No further operations are issued if the aggregate maximum number of concurrent operations has been hit, or if there are no operations queued for an I/O class that has not hit its maximum. Every time an I/O operation is queued or an operation completes, the scheduler looks for new operations to issue.

In general, smaller max_actives will lead to lower latency of synchronous operations. Larger max_actives may lead to higher overall throughput, depending on underlying storage.

The ratio of the queues' max_actives determines the balance of performance between reads, writes, and scrubs. For example, increasing zfs_vdev_scrub_max_active will cause the scrub or resilver to complete more quickly, but reads and writes to have higher latency and lower throughput.

All I/O classes have a fixed maximum number of outstanding operations, except for the async write class. Asynchronous writes represent the data that is committed to stable storage during the syncing stage for transaction groups. Transaction groups enter the syncing state periodically, so the number of queued async writes will quickly burst up and then bleed down to zero. Rather than servicing them as quickly as possible, the I/O scheduler changes the maximum number of active async write operations according to the amount of dirty data in the pool. Since both throughput and latency typically increase with the number of concurrent operations issued to physical devices, reducing the burstiness in the number of simultaneous operations also stabilizes the response time of operations from other queues, in particular synchronous ones. In broad strokes, the I/O scheduler will issue more concurrent operations from the async write queue as there is more dirty data in the pool.

  Async Writes
The number of concurrent operations issued for the async write I/O class follows a piece-wise linear function defined by a few adjustable points:

           |              o---------| <-- zfs_vdev_async_write_max_active
      ^    |             /^         |
      |    |            / |         |
    active |           /  |         |
     I/O   |          /   |         |
    count  |         /    |         |
           |        /     |         |
           |-------o      |         | <-- zfs_vdev_async_write_min_active
          0|_______^______|_________|
           0%      |      |       100% of zfs_dirty_data_max
                   |      |
                   |      `-- zfs_vdev_async_write_active_max_dirty_percent
                   `--------- zfs_vdev_async_write_active_min_dirty_percent

Until the amount of dirty data exceeds a minimum percentage of the dirty data allowed in the pool, the I/O scheduler will limit the number of concurrent operations to the minimum. As that threshold is crossed, the number of concurrent operations issued increases linearly to the maximum at the specified maximum percentage of the dirty data allowed in the pool.

Ideally, the amount of dirty data on a busy pool will stay in the sloped part of the function between zfs_vdev_async_write_active_min_dirty_percent and zfs_vdev_async_write_active_max_dirty_percent. If it exceeds the maximum percentage, this indicates that the rate of incoming data is greater than the rate that the backend storage can handle. In this case, we must further throttle incoming writes, as described in the next section.

ZFS TRANSACTION DELAY
We delay transactions when we've determined that the backend storage isn't able to accommodate the rate of incoming writes.

If there is already a transaction waiting, we delay relative to when that transaction will finish waiting. This way the calculated delay time is independent of the number of threads concurrently executing transactions.

If we are the only waiter, wait relative to when the transaction started, rather than the current time. This credits the transaction for "time already served", e.g. reading indirect blocks.

The minimum time for a transaction to take is calculated as
    min_time = min(zfs_delay_scale × (dirty - min) / (max - dirty), 100ms)

The delay has two degrees of freedom that can be adjusted via tunables. The percentage of dirty data at which we start to delay is defined by zfs_delay_min_dirty_percent. This should typically be at or above zfs_vdev_async_write_active_max_dirty_percent, so that we only start to delay after writing at full speed has failed to keep up with the incoming write rate. The scale of the curve is defined by zfs_delay_scale. Roughly speaking, this variable determines the amount of delay at the midpoint of the curve.

    delay
     10ms +-------------------------------------------------------------*+
          |                                                             *|
      9ms +                                                             *+
          |                                                             *|
      8ms +                                                             *+
          |                                                            * |
      7ms +                                                            * +
          |                                                            * |
      6ms +                                                            * +
          |                                                            * |
      5ms +                                                           *  +
          |                                                           *  |
      4ms +                                                           *  +
          |                                                           *  |
      3ms +                                                          *   +
          |                                                          *   |
      2ms +                                              (midpoint) *    +
          |                                                  |    **     |
      1ms +                                                  v ***       +
          |             zfs_delay_scale ---------->     ********         |
        0 +-------------------------------------*********----------------+
          0%                    <- zfs_dirty_data_max ->               100%

Note, that since the delay is added to the outstanding time remaining on the most recent transaction it's effectively the inverse of IOPS. Here, the midpoint of 500 us translates to 2000 IOPS. The shape of the curve was chosen such that small changes in the amount of accumulated dirty data in the first three quarters of the curve yield relatively small differences in the amount of delay.

The effects can be easier to understand when the amount of delay is represented on a logarithmic scale:

    delay
    100ms +-------------------------------------------------------------++
          +                                                              +
          |                                                              |
          +                                                             *+
     10ms +                                                             *+
          +                                                           ** +
          |                                              (midpoint)  **  |
          +                                                  |     **    +
      1ms +                                                  v ****      +
          +             zfs_delay_scale ---------->        *****         +
          |                                             ****             |
          +                                          ****                +
    100us +                                        **                    +
          +                                       *                      +
          |                                      *                       |
          +                                     *                        +
     10us +                                     *                        +
          +                                                              +
          |                                                              |
          +                                                              +
          +--------------------------------------------------------------+
          0%                    <- zfs_dirty_data_max ->               100%

Note here that only as the amount of dirty data approaches its limit does the delay start to increase rapidly. The goal of a properly tuned system should be to keep the amount of dirty data out of that range by first ensuring that the appropriate limits are set for the I/O scheduler to reach optimal throughput on the back-end storage, and then by changing the value of zfs_delay_scale to increase the steepness of the curve.